3D printed multi-material scaffolds: integrating bioceramic with metal for enhanced bone scaffold performance

S. Panahkhahi; M. H. Zwart; V. Moosabeiki; L. B. Kunkels; M. A. Leeflang; M. Klimopoulou; N. E. Putra; L. E. Fratila-Apachitei; J. Zhou; M. J. Mirzaali; A. A. Zadpoor

doi:10.1016/j.mtla.2026.102748

3D printed multi-material scaffolds: integrating bioceramic with metal for enhanced bone scaffold performance

S. Panahkhahi^*, M. H. Zwart, V. Moosabeiki, L. B. Kunkels, M. A. Leeflang, M. Klimopoulou, N. E. Putra, L. E. Fratila-Apachitei, J. Zhou, M. J. Mirzaali^*, A. A. Zadpoor

^*Corresponding author for this work

Biomaterials & Tissue Biomechanics

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Abstract

A bstract This study was the first attempt to design, fabricate, and evaluate multi-material bone scaffolds composed of Ti6Al4V and akermanite (Ca₂Mg(Si₂O₇), Ak), produced via direct ink writing (DIW), followed by sintering. Two scaffold architectures were developed (i.e., monolithic and core-shell) aimed at combining the mechanical strength of the Ti alloy with the osteoinductive properties of Ak. Uniaxial compression testing demonstrated that the core-shell scaffolds exhibited higher relative-density-normalized elastic moduli (up to 7.65 ± 0.35 GPa) and yield strengths (up to 444.7 ± 8.1 MPa) than the monolithic designs, namely Ti6Al4V-only scaffolds (elastic modulus: 4.29 ± 0.18 GPa; yield strength: 230.9 ± 1.7 MPa) and 90% Ti6Al4V/10% Ak composite scaffolds (elastic modulus: 3.05 ± 0.08 GPa; yield strength: 24.7 ± 1.4 MPa).The enhanced mechanical performance was attributed to interfacial reinforcement and optimized material distribution. Bioactivity assays in r-SBF revealed surface Ca–P deposition on akermanite-containing scaffolds by SEM and EDS, a response not observed on Ti6Al4V only specimens. Complementary ICP-OES showed marked depletion of phosphate and calcium ions, consistent with rapid HAp nucleation and growth, and substantial silicon release in composite samples, a known pro-osteogenic stimulus. Cell culture assays further confirmed the cytocompatibility of the Ti6Al4V, composite and core-shell scaffolds for preosteoblasts. Furthermore, SEM imaging showed that all the scaffolds supported cell attachment and evidenced a distinct cell spatial distribution depending on scaffold composition and architecture. These results contribute to advancing the scaffold design for bone repair and regeneration by proposing DIW-fabricated Ti6Al7V/Ak core-shell scaffolds that show potential as customizable, load-bearing implants with improved mechanical properties and surface bioactivity relative to the Ti6Al4V scaffolds.

Original language	English
Article number	102748
Number of pages	11
Journal	Materialia
Volume	46
DOIs	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtla.2026.102748
Publication status	Published - 2026

Keywords

Bone tissue repair
Direct ink writing
Multi-functional bone scaffold
Multi-material 3D printing
Tissue engineering

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10.1016/j.mtla.2026.102748

1-s2.0-S2589152926001006-mainFinal published version, 5.49 MBLicence: CC BY

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Panahkhahi, S., Zwart, M. H., Moosabeiki, V., Kunkels, L. B., Leeflang, M. A., Klimopoulou, M., Putra, N. E., Fratila-Apachitei, L. E., Zhou, J., Mirzaali, M. J., & Zadpoor, A. A. (2026). 3D printed multi-material scaffolds: integrating bioceramic with metal for enhanced bone scaffold performance. Materialia, 46, Article 102748. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtla.2026.102748

@article{fc29e4a5927040c7859a40df9f4029cf,

title = "3D printed multi-material scaffolds: integrating bioceramic with metal for enhanced bone scaffold performance",

abstract = "A bstract This study was the first attempt to design, fabricate, and evaluate multi-material bone scaffolds composed of Ti6Al4V and akermanite (Ca₂Mg(Si₂O₇), Ak), produced via direct ink writing (DIW), followed by sintering. Two scaffold architectures were developed (i.e., monolithic and core-shell) aimed at combining the mechanical strength of the Ti alloy with the osteoinductive properties of Ak. Uniaxial compression testing demonstrated that the core-shell scaffolds exhibited higher relative-density-normalized elastic moduli (up to 7.65 ± 0.35 GPa) and yield strengths (up to 444.7 ± 8.1 MPa) than the monolithic designs, namely Ti6Al4V-only scaffolds (elastic modulus: 4.29 ± 0.18 GPa; yield strength: 230.9 ± 1.7 MPa) and 90\% Ti6Al4V/10\% Ak composite scaffolds (elastic modulus: 3.05 ± 0.08 GPa; yield strength: 24.7 ± 1.4 MPa).The enhanced mechanical performance was attributed to interfacial reinforcement and optimized material distribution. Bioactivity assays in r-SBF revealed surface Ca–P deposition on akermanite-containing scaffolds by SEM and EDS, a response not observed on Ti6Al4V only specimens. Complementary ICP-OES showed marked depletion of phosphate and calcium ions, consistent with rapid HAp nucleation and growth, and substantial silicon release in composite samples, a known pro-osteogenic stimulus. Cell culture assays further confirmed the cytocompatibility of the Ti6Al4V, composite and core-shell scaffolds for preosteoblasts. Furthermore, SEM imaging showed that all the scaffolds supported cell attachment and evidenced a distinct cell spatial distribution depending on scaffold composition and architecture. These results contribute to advancing the scaffold design for bone repair and regeneration by proposing DIW-fabricated Ti6Al7V/Ak core-shell scaffolds that show potential as customizable, load-bearing implants with improved mechanical properties and surface bioactivity relative to the Ti6Al4V scaffolds.",

keywords = "Bone tissue repair, Direct ink writing, Multi-functional bone scaffold, Multi-material 3D printing, Tissue engineering",

author = "S. Panahkhahi and Zwart, \{M. H.\} and V. Moosabeiki and Kunkels, \{L. B.\} and Leeflang, \{M. A.\} and M. Klimopoulou and Putra, \{N. E.\} and Fratila-Apachitei, \{L. E.\} and J. Zhou and Mirzaali, \{M. J.\} and Zadpoor, \{A. A.\}",

year = "2026",

doi = "10.1016/j.mtla.2026.102748",

language = "English",

volume = "46",

journal = "Materialia",

issn = "2589-1529",

publisher = "Elsevier",

}

TY - JOUR

T1 - 3D printed multi-material scaffolds

T2 - integrating bioceramic with metal for enhanced bone scaffold performance

AU - Panahkhahi, S.

AU - Zwart, M. H.

AU - Moosabeiki, V.

AU - Kunkels, L. B.

AU - Leeflang, M. A.

AU - Klimopoulou, M.

AU - Putra, N. E.

AU - Fratila-Apachitei, L. E.

AU - Zhou, J.

AU - Mirzaali, M. J.

AU - Zadpoor, A. A.

PY - 2026

Y1 - 2026

N2 - A bstract This study was the first attempt to design, fabricate, and evaluate multi-material bone scaffolds composed of Ti6Al4V and akermanite (Ca₂Mg(Si₂O₇), Ak), produced via direct ink writing (DIW), followed by sintering. Two scaffold architectures were developed (i.e., monolithic and core-shell) aimed at combining the mechanical strength of the Ti alloy with the osteoinductive properties of Ak. Uniaxial compression testing demonstrated that the core-shell scaffolds exhibited higher relative-density-normalized elastic moduli (up to 7.65 ± 0.35 GPa) and yield strengths (up to 444.7 ± 8.1 MPa) than the monolithic designs, namely Ti6Al4V-only scaffolds (elastic modulus: 4.29 ± 0.18 GPa; yield strength: 230.9 ± 1.7 MPa) and 90% Ti6Al4V/10% Ak composite scaffolds (elastic modulus: 3.05 ± 0.08 GPa; yield strength: 24.7 ± 1.4 MPa).The enhanced mechanical performance was attributed to interfacial reinforcement and optimized material distribution. Bioactivity assays in r-SBF revealed surface Ca–P deposition on akermanite-containing scaffolds by SEM and EDS, a response not observed on Ti6Al4V only specimens. Complementary ICP-OES showed marked depletion of phosphate and calcium ions, consistent with rapid HAp nucleation and growth, and substantial silicon release in composite samples, a known pro-osteogenic stimulus. Cell culture assays further confirmed the cytocompatibility of the Ti6Al4V, composite and core-shell scaffolds for preosteoblasts. Furthermore, SEM imaging showed that all the scaffolds supported cell attachment and evidenced a distinct cell spatial distribution depending on scaffold composition and architecture. These results contribute to advancing the scaffold design for bone repair and regeneration by proposing DIW-fabricated Ti6Al7V/Ak core-shell scaffolds that show potential as customizable, load-bearing implants with improved mechanical properties and surface bioactivity relative to the Ti6Al4V scaffolds.

AB - A bstract This study was the first attempt to design, fabricate, and evaluate multi-material bone scaffolds composed of Ti6Al4V and akermanite (Ca₂Mg(Si₂O₇), Ak), produced via direct ink writing (DIW), followed by sintering. Two scaffold architectures were developed (i.e., monolithic and core-shell) aimed at combining the mechanical strength of the Ti alloy with the osteoinductive properties of Ak. Uniaxial compression testing demonstrated that the core-shell scaffolds exhibited higher relative-density-normalized elastic moduli (up to 7.65 ± 0.35 GPa) and yield strengths (up to 444.7 ± 8.1 MPa) than the monolithic designs, namely Ti6Al4V-only scaffolds (elastic modulus: 4.29 ± 0.18 GPa; yield strength: 230.9 ± 1.7 MPa) and 90% Ti6Al4V/10% Ak composite scaffolds (elastic modulus: 3.05 ± 0.08 GPa; yield strength: 24.7 ± 1.4 MPa).The enhanced mechanical performance was attributed to interfacial reinforcement and optimized material distribution. Bioactivity assays in r-SBF revealed surface Ca–P deposition on akermanite-containing scaffolds by SEM and EDS, a response not observed on Ti6Al4V only specimens. Complementary ICP-OES showed marked depletion of phosphate and calcium ions, consistent with rapid HAp nucleation and growth, and substantial silicon release in composite samples, a known pro-osteogenic stimulus. Cell culture assays further confirmed the cytocompatibility of the Ti6Al4V, composite and core-shell scaffolds for preosteoblasts. Furthermore, SEM imaging showed that all the scaffolds supported cell attachment and evidenced a distinct cell spatial distribution depending on scaffold composition and architecture. These results contribute to advancing the scaffold design for bone repair and regeneration by proposing DIW-fabricated Ti6Al7V/Ak core-shell scaffolds that show potential as customizable, load-bearing implants with improved mechanical properties and surface bioactivity relative to the Ti6Al4V scaffolds.

KW - Bone tissue repair

KW - Direct ink writing

KW - Multi-functional bone scaffold

KW - Multi-material 3D printing

KW - Tissue engineering

UR - https://www.scopus.com/pages/publications/105036418089

U2 - 10.1016/j.mtla.2026.102748

DO - 10.1016/j.mtla.2026.102748

M3 - Article

AN - SCOPUS:105036418089

SN - 2589-1529

VL - 46

JO - Materialia

JF - Materialia

M1 - 102748

ER -

3D printed multi-material scaffolds: integrating bioceramic with metal for enhanced bone scaffold performance

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Keywords

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