Comprehensive insights on the detection, occurrence and modelling of pharmaceuticals in surface water, groundwater, and drinking water treatment plants

Pharmaceuticals have received extensive scientific and socio-economic attention worldwide due to their acute and chronic toxic effects on plants, animals, and human health. However, the geographical distribution and seasonal variability of pharmaceutical mixtures in aquatic environments remain underexplored, especially in resource-deficient countries. The present review provides an in-depth analysis of the seasonal occurrence of pharmaceuticals, particularly antibiotics detected over the last five years in surface water, groundwater, and drinking water. The effectiveness of the conventional and advanced drinking water treatment processes is discussed with a focus on the adsorption and ozonation processes, commonly employed at drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs). Findings reveal median concentrations of antibiotics and other pharmaceuticals in drinking water worldwide, often exceeding their levels in groundwater. This underscores the urgent need for global-scale, long-term monitoring of antibiotics in aquatic systems, especially in DWTPs. Beyond targeted analysis, non-targeted analysis (NTA) should be integrated into routine water quality monitoring at DWTPs to identify novel contaminants, including fluorinated pharmaceuticals. Finally, this review provides an overview concerning the process-based and data-driven modelling of pharmaceutical occurrence, fate, and transport as a complementary approach to sampling and lab-scaled experiments, especially in resource-limited settings. Strengthening long-term monitoring, expanding treatment solutions, integrating modelling tools, and promoting green chemistry innovations are crucial to mitigating risks and safeguarding water quality.