Establishing the ice strength coefficient from mean crushing loads and a theoretical velocity effect

The design of flexible vertical offshore structures exposed to crushing ice, such as offshore wind turbines, can become governed by ice loads and the structural response associated with low relative speeds between ice and structure. Low ice speeds can cause significant loads due to pressure synchronization and/or increase in contact, potentially larger than those observed at high ice speeds, which is often referred to as the velocity effect. In this study, the dataset from the full-scale measurement campaign at the Norströmsgrund lighthouse is reanalyzed. Several instances of ice load amplification are identified and presented, to confirm that synchronization and the velocity effect developed. The increase in ice load is quantified and discussed in the context of a theoretical framework, and model-and full-scale observations of the velocity effect on other structures. Then several events of high-speed crushing are investigated and the potential global pressures at low speeds for those events are estimated based on the theoretical framework. These estimates are compared to typical high-speed global crushing pressures used to define the ice strength coefficient R for the Baltic Sea. It is found that the velocity effect may produce global pressures equivalent to a R factor above 0.9 MPa. The results provide a theoretical substantiation for inclusion of the velocity effect and a possible physical interpretation of the recommended value of 1.8 MPa in the ISO 19906 design standard.