Impact of land use and land cover changes on urban temperature, rainfall, and flooding: a case study of Jakarta

Increasing global population and domestic migration have a significant impact on global land-use and land-cover (LULC) changes. Global LULC changes in recent times led to a reduction in vegetation cover within all types of ecosystems, which are potentially linked to human activities. LULC changes are not only affecting the quantity of green spaces but also the pattern of green spaces, which are becoming more fragmented and scattered into smaller areas. Those changes would influence the hydrological cycle resulting in a decrease in urban ecosystem services leading to an increase in various natural hazards, for instance, high urban temperature and urban flooding. Ecosystem services are the varied benefits to humans from the natural environment and healthy ecosystems. In an urban area, ecosystem services include temperature regulation, carbon storage, water regulation, and recreation. An increase in urban temperature is mainly related to a decrease in evapotranspiration, while urban flooding is related to a decrease in infiltration, a decrease in flow resistance, and a reduction in rainfall interception. Furthermore, high urban temperatures and urban flooding might occur in two different time periods, but they can occur in the same area.....