Microelectrode array technology for organoids and microphysiological systems

Organoids and microphysiological systems (MPS) constitute relevant in vitro (patho)physiological models, complementary to two-dimensional (2D) cell cultures and animal studies, by recapitulating in vivo three-dimensional (3D) tissue microenvironments outside the human body. Advanced microtechnologies enable electro-mechanical stimulation of cell activity and the recording of electrophysiological signals for dynamic and continuous, label-free monitoring of these models. Consequently, the extension from 2D cultures to organoids and MPS necessitates a corresponding transition from planar 2D-microelectrode arrays (MEAs) to 3D MEAs to assess the electrical activity of complex 3D tissue networks. In this review, we outline recent advances in the 3D MEA landscape and elaborate on future trends of 3D MEA-integrated multifunctional platforms, highlighting challenges and opportunities.