Physicochemical characterization and resource recovery potential of hazardous municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) fly ash and air pollution control (APC) residues in the Netherlands

The growing incineration of municipal solid waste results in hazardous byproducts, particularly municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) fly ash and air pollution control (APC) residues. The high toxicity of these residues limits their potential for recycling, leading to their direct disposal in landfills. This landfilling poses a significant environmental risk and presents a major challenge in countries with limited availability of land, such as the Netherlands. In this study, the physicochemical properties of Dutch MSWI fly ash and APC residues were evaluated, including, for the first time, an assessment of trace metal concentrations. High concentrations of heavy metals such as Zn, Pb, Cu, and Cd were identified in most MSWI fly ash and APC residues, along with notable concentrations of trace metals like Bi, suggesting new opportunities for resource recovery. The most hazardous residues were characterized by high contents of chloride, sulfate, alkali oxides, or carbonates, along with low calcium content in their chemical composition. These findings provide valuable insights for the targeted treatment and potential recycling of hazardous MSWI fly ash and APC residues currently being landfilled in the Netherlands.