Resistance towards autonomous vehicles (AVs)

The resistance towards automated vehicles (AVs) is little understood. The main objective of this study is to examine the resistance towards AVs, identifying the factors explaining resistance. Comments submitted by residents of California to the California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC) on the fared deployment of AVs were analyzed. In total, we identified four main themes, and twenty-nine sub-themes. We developed a conceptual framework for resistance that explains resistance by individual and vehicle characteristics, the direct and indirect consequences of use, reactions of others, and external events. AVs were considered incompetent, and unpredictable, violating traffic rules, blocking traffic, not explicitly engaging in communicating with other road users, and causing conflict situations. Respondents questioned the effectiveness of AVs in meeting today's transportation-related challenges, and feared the indirect negative consequences of the deployment of AVs for traffic safety, flow efficiency, transition towards sustainable mobility, environmental efficiency, privacy, economy, social equity, livability of cities, and humanity. Respondents perceived a low responsibility of stakeholders involved in the manufacture, deployment, and regulation of AVs given a lack of accountability, and legal liability. Moreover, they reported a limited involvement of local residents and community in the decision-making processes behind AV deployment and an unjust distribution of costs and benefits. The scientific dialogue on acceptance of AVs needs to shift towards resistance as the ‘other’ essential element of acceptance to ensure that we live up to our promise of transitioning towards more sustainable mobility that is inclusive, equitable, fair, just, affordable, and available to all.