Time-varying storm surges on Lorentz’s Wadden Sea networks

We present an idealized network model for storm surges in the Wadden Sea, specifically including a time-dependent wind forcing (wind speed and direction). This extends the classical work by H.A. Lorentz who only considered the equilibrium response to a steady wind forcing. The solutions obtained in the frequency domain for the linearized shallow-water equations in a channel are combined in an algebraic system for the network. The velocity scale that is used for the linearized friction coefficient is determined iteratively. The hindcast of the storm surge of 5 December 2013 produces credible time-varying results. The effects of storm and basin parameters on the peak surge elevation are the subject of a sensitivity analysis. The formulation in the frequency domain reveals which modes in the external forcing lead to the largest surge response at coastal stations. There appears to be a minimum storm duration, of about 3–4 h, that is required for a surge to attain its maximum elevation. The influence of the water levels at the North Sea inlets on the Wadden Sea surges decreases towards the shore. In contrast, the wind shearing generates its largest response near the shore, where the fetch length is at its maximum