Wave Generation Across a Continuum of Landslide Conditions From the Collapse of Partially Submerged to Fully Submerged Granular Columns

Landslide generated tsunamis are a primary natural hazard to coastal communities and infrastructure, but the present state of knowledge is limited to the specific details of momentum transfer from the landslide to the water body for either subaerial or fully submerged conditions. Here we report a series of novel experiments and an analytical model that bridges this gap, by exploring the collapse of a granular column for a wide range of water depths. We show that the maximum seaward wave amplitude is governed by a single dimensionless ratio, the relative depth of submergence. Based on the experimental observations, we propose a continuous function that quantifies the maximum wave amplitude by considering the momentum flux from the initially vertical granular column to the initially still fluid. Predictions made using the momentum function are in good agreement with observations of the present study and with other experimental studies of granular column collapse at larger scales. The analytical model allows the prediction of maximum wave amplitude over the full range of submergence conditions from subaerial to partially submerged and fully submerged collapses, with potential applications for tsunami hazard assessment.